Section 2 Teaching Writing

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I.Thinking

【Case Reflection】

Mr L pays a lot of attention to English writing. He gives writing assignments to his students every week, and sometimes a writing task after a class discussion. According to him, continuous writing practice is the best way for students to improve their writing skills. He corrects each and every mistake in his students' essays and asks them to rewrite them. However, his students continue to make many mistakes in their essays and the work they hand in is not satisfactory. What do you think are the main problems with Mr L's teaching?

II.Features of Teaching Writing

Writing is a highly complicated thinking process. As a kind of communicative skill, writing is different from speaking. Writing is, unlike speech, not enriched by contextual cues such as situation, facial expressions, gestures, repetition, etc. The writer, unlike the speaker, does not benefit from real-time feedback. Writing needs pure language devices to organize paragraphs and logical thinking to make it clearly arranged. In other words, writing places great demand on cognitive ability, language ability, organization ability and introspective ability. Writing competence can fully reveal one's knowledge of English and ability to use the language.

Writing competence mainly includes observation ability, thinking ability, basic writing ability and style-writing ability. Basic writing ability refers to the integration of feeling, conception, material collection, organization, expression and revision in the writing process. Style-writing ability refers to the standard of proficiency in writing-style regulations, writing knowledge and skills, the key point of which is the writing style. The writing process needs imagination, creation and logical inference. Lack of any of these can compromise writing success.

(I) Writing levels

English writing includes sentence writing and discourse writing. Discourse writing can be further divided into paragraph writing and passage writing. Sentence writing is the foundation for writing, while paragraph writing and passage writing are the result of the development of writing skills. Sentence writing and paragraph writing are the main focus for students of primary writing level. They can strengthen understanding and memory of the text by making sentences and doing imitative-writing, and to support these there are various writing activities teachers can choose from, such as dictation; making sentences with given words; adapting sentences; linking words into sentences; making a passage with given sentences; writing according to pictures; and imitative-writing. There is, however, more emphasis on paragraph writing and discourse writing for students of middle and upper levels of writing. Writing activities for them include writing diaries (daily and weekly) or informal essays, writing letters, generalizing or commenting on texts after reading, rewriting, writing according to pictures, writing lectures, etc.

1.Sentence writing

Sentences are the basis of the syntactic system. They should be grammatically correct, well organized and coherent. Pronouns and conjunctives should be appropriately used, and lexical and structural repetition should be avoided.

2.Discourse writing

A discourse is generally composed of discourse segments much as a paragraph is composed of sentences, more specifically, topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences. Topic sentences usually state the main ideas and set the direction of potential development of the paragraph. As the body of the whole paragraph, supporting sentences are supposed to give specific details, facts or examples to support, prove or explain the main idea of the paragraph. Appearing at the end of the paragraph, concluding sentences sum up the supporting sentences and restate the main idea.

According to the different genres of texts, discourse can be categorized into expository, argumentative and practical writing. It can also fall into narration, exemplification, comparison, chronology, sequence, etc. Different types of discourse are also different in logical development, structuring and arrangements of paragraphs; however, they should all be coherent, united, comprehensive and concise. Grammatical correctness is not enough for discourse, which should also be an exact display of the writers' ideas, attitudes and cultural background.

(II)Writing models

The more common writing models are parallel writing, framework writing, assigned writing and free writing, etc.

During parallel writing, which is a kind of imitative writing, model essays and writing clues are given to students before they produce a parallel text using their own information. Similarly, students are provided with the basic framework and certain features of the text before they are asked to complete a framework writing task, and model essay and paragraph structures are usually given to students of elementary levels to make writing easier. While dealing with assigned writing tasks, students are required to analyse the topic that teachers assign, generate ideas, make outlines, develop drafts, revise and then finalize the copy independently. Free writing, on the other hand, means that students write freely, without given topics or any requirements. It has been found that among these writing models, parallel writing, framework writing and process writing are more helpful to improve students' writing skills.

(III)Writing difficulties

Due to the lower requirements and limited length of writing there are fewer writing problems for students of elementary education. Students tend to have more trouble in their language and communicative competence, including vocabulary, grammar, discourse coherence and cognition of basic writing skills.

1.Vocabulary

Words are the constituents of sentences and the basic elements of texts. A good essay requires correct spelling as well as correct wording. Shortage of vocabulary can lead to misspelling, misuse of words and miscommunication.

2.Grammar

Sentences are the basic unit to convey ideas. Sentence structures and grammar rules, therefore, are the ties constructing words into sentences to express ideas. However, there are often problems with sentence structures and expression in students' writing, and non-standard grammar is another barrier to the development of students' writing skills.

3.Discourse coherence

Discourse is integrated by sentences and paragraphs and should be both grammatically correct and semantically consistent. However, many students load their writing with words and sentences with no logic or coherence, which leads to disorganized, illogical and incoherent essays.

4.Cognition of basic writing skills

Lack of basic writing strategies and learning strategies for English writing also prevents students from developing their writing skills. Learners should be familiar with and grasp the learning strategies for each writing stage. For example, when preparing for writing, they should find a topic they are familiar with and settle the theme for the whole essay; they should also collect materials and relevant information according to the purpose of writing; then they should start planning the structure of the essay and arranging the information logically. Once they start drafting, learners should make outlines, check the information, review the writing and add new ideas if needed. After writing, they should also check the details such as punctuation and capitalization, polish the language, and delete or add information.

(IV)Writing strategies

Writing strategies are devices students choose and apply purposely and consciously to improve their writing skills, as well as regulate and control their writing behavior during the writing process. Writing strategies can help learners construct passages and communicate efficiently in written form. There are some common writing strategies such as:

●making outlines;

●listing necessary words and phrases;

●imitative-writing;

●replacing uncertain words with familiar ones;

●using learnt knowledge actively;

●summing up writing experience regularly;

●revising and editing;

●free-writing;

●cubing;

●reciting model essays or well-written paragraphs;

●setting goals for long-term or short-term writing;

●creating writing opportunities;

●comparing one's own writing with model essays or peers' compositions;

●using paraphrasing, avoidance, reduction, etc. when needed;

●full concentration on writing;

●collecting useful words, sentence structures, etc. for possible use;

●self-encouragement and self-appreciation;

●communicating about the writing experience with others;

●extensive reading;

●gathering information from various sources.

III.Methods for Teaching Writing

(I) Statement of the teaching objectives for English writing

According to the objectives for writing in the National Curriculum Standards, students should be able to:

●write or reply to simple greeting and invitation cards with the aid of examples;

●use simple diagrams, posters, etc. to convey information;

●use common linking devices to express oneself fluently and logically in writing;

●use phrases or sentences to describe series of pictures and make up simple stories;

●write simple sentences with the aid of pictures or forms;

●write descriptions for pictures by using phrases or simple sentences;

●write brief notes and simple letters, etc. in appropriate forms;

●write greeting cards with appropriate words;

●write simple paragraphs, instructions and explanations according to prompts given in pictures or tables;

●write short and simple headings or descriptions to fit pictures or objects, etc.;

●write short essays or reports with the aid of information from words, pictures and forms;

●gather and organize material according to the purpose of the writing;

●write outlines for texts;

●write brief paragraphs such as simple instructions or regulations;

●write coherent and fully structured short compositions to describe events or express opinions and attitudes;

●write short articles of common genres like reports or letters;

●describe people and events and express personal comments simply;

●write letters to friends or pen pals to exchange information and feelings;

●do simple translations in written form;

●complete diagrams such as application forms;

●draft and modify short compositions in group discussion with the aid of teachers;

●draft short letters and passages independently, editing them with the teacher's guidance;

●work in groups to adapt texts into short plays;

●use capitalization and punctuation with basic accuracy;

●write in standard forms and coherent sentences.

(II) Approaches for teaching writing

There are generally three approaches to the teaching of writing: the product-oriented approach, the process-oriented approach and the content-oriented approach.

1.Product-oriented approach

The product-oriented approach is the traditional way of teaching writing. It puts more emphasis on mechanical aspects of writing, such as grammatical and syntactical structures, spelling, etc. In this approach, teachers usually assign topics for students and correct their compositions after they finish writing. In order to successfully apply this approach, students should have a clear understanding of the form and structure of the written products. Therefore, this approach is primarily concerned with the final product of writing.

2.Content-oriented approach

The content-oriented approach mainly focuses on the collection of writing materials and richness of the writing content. The role of teachers is to instruct and help students to gain information through various sources and to synthesize and analyse the information. The focus of teaching is to prepare students for writing. For example, after the topic and requirements of writing are assigned, students are required to collect writing materials via various sources such as reading materials, lectures, discussions, visits, questionnaires, and so on. Then, they classify and rearrange the collected information to create an outline with the aid of their teachers. The drafting and revision should be completed after class.

3.Process-oriented approach

As far as the outcome is concerned, a process-oriented approach pays more attention to the process of how ideas are developed and formulated in writing. Teachers play an important role throughout the whole process of writing, from generating ideas, making outlines, drafting and revision. They should help students to find, analyse and solve any problems in the process.

For example, when preparing for writing, students first analyse the topic that teachers assign, and then they collect relevant information and writing materials, generate ideas and make outlines with their teachers' guidance. As soon as they start drafting, teachers should observe students' problems and provide help when necessary. After the first draft, teachers should show students how to do self-editing or peer-editing, and comment on some typical and common errors. Teachers should also correct students' compositions after the second draft and provide appropriate feedback.

The process-oriented approach emphasizes teachers' guidance in every part of the writing process, which is very important for students to become familiar with the writing process and procedures, and to learn to find and solve any writing problems and thus become an active writer. The interactive editing between teachers and students is more efficient in reducing the probability of students repeating the same mistake.

4.Three-stage approach for teaching writing

The three-stage approach for teaching writing is commonly used in writing classes in elementary and middle schools in our country. The three stages are pre-writing, while-writing and post-writing.

(1) Pre-writing

Students should have a clear idea of their writing purpose and intended audience (through discussion and decision with their teacher) before they choose the genre and topic of writing. They should also have a strong interest in what they are about to write and prepare writing materials for it. Pre-writing activities include discussion or debate on relevant topics, picture telling, free talk, reading short passages, and audio-visual activities. These activities can help students to exchange ideas, learn facts, extend thoughts and viewpoints, activate their interest and become fully prepared for writing. They also provide input on the content and language that might be needed for writing, making sure that students have the desire to write and things to write about. Moreover, explaining the writing skills of a model essay, which can help students to write with higher efficiency and accuracy, is also an important pre-writing activity.

(2) While-writing

While-writing refers to writing the first draft. In this stage, students turn their thoughts into words and then a composition which they complete directly and independently.

(3) Post-writing

After finishing the first draft in class, students should revise and polish their writing by themselves or with peers, ranging from wording, spelling, punctuation to sentence structure and paragraph structure, etc. Teachers can display some of the good writing in class to encourage students' enthusiasm for further writing. They can also provide comments and give guidance for the second draft, preparing students for later revision. After students hand in their second drafts, teachers can then give written corrections and comments on the passage structure, ideas, writing skills and styles, etc.

(III)Writing skills and skill training

It is crucial to settle the subject of composition in writing. As soon as the subject is settled, students can start choosing and organizing relevant writing material which can fully elaborate the subject. During this process, coherence of discourse, i.e. the order and logic between words and paragraphs, and the transition between sentences and paragraphs, should be given special attention.

A large amount of training is required to cultivate and improve English writing competence. For example, students can enhance their writing quality and speed with a lot of writing exercises after they have a full command of basic skills of expression. The exercises include wording and phrasing, composing paragraphs and discourse, etc.

A three-paragraph structure can be applied in most narratives, descriptions, expositions and argumentation except in the case of some writing with a more practical focus which requires a different format. The three “paragraphs” are introduction, body, and conclusion.

In order to attract readers' attention, the introduction paragraph generally starts with quotations, background information, topic sentences, introductions, questions, stories, data or definitions. The body paragraph then closely follows the questions, ideas, situations or information already mentioned, and narrates, describes, explains or discusses with facts and examples, in a vivid and reasonable way. Writers should also keep the passage logical and consistent in the process, using different linking devices appropriate to different subjects. The conclusion paragraph is usually used to highlight the writing and impress the readers. Writers can briefly summarize the essay in accordance with the previous content, comment on the subject and make the ideas clearer, thus reaching a logical conclusion.

(IV) Activities for teaching writing

Writing skills can only be improved by participating in writing activities. Therefore, it is very important for both students and teachers to design efficient and valid writing activities. Learners' language competence, writing strategies and writing skills should be taken into consideration in this process. For example, the following teaching activities can be used to develop students' skills in making sentences and composing a passage.

1.Word interpretation

Students can improve their writing vocabulary by using synonyms and antonyms to paraphrase the words and phrases in sentences or discourse. Teachers can also design substitution exercises with synonyms or antonyms to expand students' thinking and enlarge their vocabulary for writing. These activities, aiming to train students' skill in choosing proper words, can enrich their language for later use, and reduce the probability of mistakes as well.

2.Punctuation

In this activity, teachers remove all the punctuation from the model essays before distributing them to students and asking them to fill in the correct ones after reading. In this way, students can practise capitalization, punctuation, organizing sentences and constructing meaning.

3.Sentence imitation and modification

This activity aims to train students to write single sentences. First they are asked to analyse a sentence structure in oral or written form, and then they are required to make sentences with the same or similar sentence structures. Teachers can ask them to express the same idea in different ways after they have become familiar with this sentence structure.

4.Coherence

Exercises like reorganizing sentences and filling blanks are usually used in coherence training. Teachers can create sentences in a certain logical order and ask students to rearrange them into a proper passage in order of time, space, importance, from general to specific or vice versa. Teachers can also design a discourse without linking devices and ask students to add pronouns, transitional words, key words and certain sentence structures to make it coherent. Blank filling is often applied to practise the use of linking words, which can help students to understand how to link sentences and paragraphs to make discourse cohesive.

5.Discourse structure

To make students conscious of the structure of a paragraph or passage, teachers can choose typical paragraphs or discourse and show them topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences, or introduction, body and conclusion. Students can also learn how supporting sentences serve the topic sentence by picking out the irrelevant sentence (s) from a paragraph.

6.Sentence reorganization

Teachers can pick meaning-related words, phrases or sentences from a previously learned text, and ask students to rearrange them into a coherent paragraph. They can also split a dialogue or story into sentences, scramble the order and then ask students to reorganize them into a complete dialogue or story. In this way, students can be trained to think logically and construct a coherent discourse.

7.Imitative writing

It is necessary and important for students to fully understand the features of different genres of discourse. Therefore, teachers should instruct students to study model essays of different genres and generalize their characteristics. Based on their existing knowledge and life experience, students can then imitate the writing and practise writing skills.

8.Free writing

This activity allows students to practise written English freely outside class. They can write diaries daily or weekly in English, recording what they have seen, heard, thought and done; they can write letters to their friends or pen pals in English and talk about their life, feelings, experience and so on; they can also chat with their friends, ask questions or express their opinions in English on the Internet. This is a good way for students to develop their communicative competence in written form.

9.Proofreading

Proofreading is frequently used to practise students' writing skills. Various mistakes such as wrong tenses, voice, wording and spelling, inaccurate or illogic expression, unclear topic sentence, improper discourse structures, non-standard format, or Chinglish can be found and corrected through proofreading. After correcting students' writings, teachers can present some of the typical errors in the form of a proofreading exercise to help students to discover and correct their own mistakes. This activity is also useful in training students' ability to revise compositions.

IV.Chapter Summary

As one of the most important means of obtaining information, reading is an effective way for students to learn. There are four levels of reading comprehension: literal, interpretive, evaluative and appreciative. The first level is literal comprehension, and for the second level, readers have to find out the implied meaning, while the evaluative and appreciative comprehensions involve higher levels of understanding. The three models of reading are bottom-up, top-down and interactive, and correspondingly, there are three teaching approaches for reading, among which the top-down and interactive-compensatory teaching approaches are often used.

Writing is a highly complicated thinking process and an important means of expressing ideas and transferring information. As a communicative skill, writing can fully reflect students' language knowledge and competence. We can teach sentence writing and discourse writing, and the latter can be further divided into paragraph writing and passage writing. Some frequently-used models of writing include parallel writing, framework writing, assigned writing and free writing. There are three approaches to teaching writing: the product-oriented approach, the content-oriented approach and the process-oriented approach. The latter two have been proved to be more efficient.